Virgil (70–19 BC) chooses to open his poem with a grand description of Carthage, Rome’s arch enemy during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. Although Carthage was eventually defeated and destroyed in 146 BC, the conflicts between Rome and Carthage (called the Punic Wars) were embedded in Roman culture. Virgil and his audience would have studied them in detail at school. Considering the long-standing enmity between the two nations, Virgil’s depiction of Carthage in the Aeneid is notably sympathetic.

12. urbs antiqua fuit

an impressive opening which sets the tone for the mythological scenes which follow. antiqua conveys a sense of ‘noble’ as well as ‘old.’

13. Karthago

the word is enjambed for emphasis.

13-14. Italiam contra … ostia

Virgil’s audience knew exactly where Carthage once lay, but the geographical description adds pathos: the city was erased from the map by the Romans.

14. dives opum

‘rich in wealth’ (pleonasm): emphasises the fabulous wealth of Carthage, just as the superlative asperrima highlights their military prowess (Hannibal was a Carthaginian general). Together these short phrases provide a concise summary of why Carthage was such a formidable enemy for the Romans, and such a dangerous place for the Trojans (who will land there after the storm).

15. omnibus unam

the juxtaposition underlines Juno’s unique love for Carthage.

16. Samo

there was a famous temple dedicated to Juno on the Greek island of Samos. The comparison here further emphasises Juno’s fondness for Carthage.

16–17. hic … hic …

anaphora. These short sentences highlight the protection Juno provides for the city, indicating trouble for the Trojans (whom the god despises).

18. tenditque fovetque

Juno was ‘both aiming and cherishing’ that Carthage would be a great ‘world kingdom’ (regnum gentibus). The polysyndeton and historic present tense of tendit and fovet emphasise her hopes, while si qua fata sinant (‘if only the fates allowed’) indicates her desperation.

19. sed enim

produces a strong contrast between Juno’s desire (that Carthage will be the greatest) and reality (Rome will be). Translates as ‘but in fact’ or ‘but indeed’.

22. sic volvere Parcas

a vivid phrase conveying the mythological idea that the Fates (Parcae) are three goddesses who spin the threads of world events.

Juno has other reasons for wanting to prevent the Trojans from completing their mission. Jupiter, her husband, has been unfaithful to her on more than one occasion with a Trojan, and she cannot forget the humiliation of losing the beauty contest which was judged by the Trojan prince, Paris.

25. necdum etiam

(‘still not yet’). etiam emphasises the length of time Juno is capable of bearing grudges. The Trojan War ended years ago, the judgement of Paris happened ten years before that, and Ganymede was abducted several generations before both.

26. manet

historic present tense emphasises the enduring nature of Juno’s bitterness.

27-8. spretaeque, et genus, et rapti

the polysyndeton shows how “Juno counts the points furiously to herself” (MacLennan).

28. genus invisum

(‘the hateful race’) because the Trojans were descended from an affair between Juno’s husband (Jupiter) and a mortal woman (Electra). The common theme of all these grievances is sexual jealousy.

29. accensa

a powerful word to describe how moved (lit. “fired up”) Juno is by these reasons.

29. iactatos

the frequentative form of iacio (I throw): the poor Trojans are repeatedly tossed about on the high seas. Their vulnerability contrasts with the powerful and vindictive portrayal of Juno Virgil has just given.

30. immitis Achilli

technically redundant (Achilles is already included in Danaum) and so a pleonasm. Virgil singles him out because Achilles was a vicious (immitis) warrior, and so the Trojan survivors (reliquias) are lucky to be alive. The position of Achilli at the end of the line adds further emphasis.

31. arcebat

the imperfect tense conveys Juno’s determination. She kept on preventing the Trojans from reaching their destination.

32. maria omnia circum

hyperbole to convey the epic nature of Aeneas’ journey. It was a long journey, but he did not traverse every sea.

33. tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem

a remarkable statement which conveys the patriotic idea that Rome was founded through hard work and struggle. It also neatly summarises the whole poem in one line.

The sight of the Trojans making their way around Sicily, so close to their destination, enrages Juno. She argues that if Pallas (i.e. Athena/Minerva) was allowed to punish the Greeks after the Trojan War because of the crime of one man (Ajax the Lesser), then she should be allowed to prevent Aeneas from reaching Italy. She is the queen of the gods, after all.

34. vix e conspectu Siculae

there is tension in the fact that the Trojans have just left sight of land, and thus safety from the hazards of the open sea. The position of vix emphasises this.

34. laeti

dramatic irony: the Trojans have no idea what is about to hit them, but we do.

35. spumas salis aere ruebant

the alliteration (sibilance) of spumas salis evokes the sound of the sea. The imperfect tense of ruebant (and also dabant) builds drama: these incomplete actions are about to be rudely interrupted.

36. servans

the word choice is quite shocking: in her bitterness, Juno is deliberately keeping her vulnus from healing.

37. mene … regem?

the first of three rhetorical questions Juno asks herself. She is constructing her argument like a politician or a lawyer in order to justify her actions.

37. victam

emphasised by position. Juno is framing her failure to keep the Trojans away from Italy like a military defeat.

39. quippe

“of course”. Sarcastic: Juno sees no good reason why she should be thwarted by the Fates.

39-40. classem Argivum

these words are enjambed to emphasise the destruction. Pallas (Minerva) did not obliterate the entire Greek fleet (e.g. Odysseus gets away with the same 12 ships he arrived with), but the damage was significant.

40. unius

emphasised by position: Juno is arguing that Pallas (Minerva) was allowed to punish the Greeks collectively because of a single man (whereas Juno is seeking retribution for the sins of an entire race).

41. noxam et furias

“crime and madness”: hendiadys (for “insane crime”). The crime was Ajax’s infamous rape of the Trojan priestess Cassandra inside Minerva’s temple.

42. ignem Iovis

i.e. thunderbolts. Usually, only Jupiter casts his thunderbolts, so Minerva is being shown especial favour here. Juno emphasises this by the juxtaposition of ipsa (referring to Minerva) and Iovis.

43. disiecitque … evertitque

polysyndeton to emphasise the widespread destruction caused by Pallas. This also foreshadows the storm which will be sent by Aeolus to scatter the Trojans.

45. expirantem flammas

“as he was breathing out fire” – the present participle allows this horrifying phenomenon (caused by lightning setting fire to Ajax’s lungs) to be interrupted by the perfect tense of both corripuit and infixit. The vengeance of Minerva, and the gods in general, is brutally realised in this scene.

47. ast ego

“but I, on the other hand.” Juno strongly contrasts what Minerva was allowed to do with the restrictions she feels have been placed on her own powers.

48. divum incedo regina

“(I) who move as queen of the gods.” Juno is stressing that she is not only queen of the gods in name, but also by nature. Connington says that incedo is “an allusion, of course, to the majesty of Juno’s gait”.

48–49. Iovisque et soror et coniunx

Jupiter is the ruler of gods and men, so Juno highlights how she is linked to his power both by blood (as sister) and marriage (as wife). Iovisque at the end of the line and et soror et coniunx at the start of the line both emphasise her connections to his supreme authority.

49. una cum gente

“with a single race.” Juno is trying to play down her genocidal ambition. However, the comparison with Minerva’s killing of a few Greeks is not really balanced.

48–50. et quisquam numen Iunonis adoret

Juno’s final rhetorical question (to which the expected answer is negative). She suggests she will lose her status as a god if people believe she is impotent. adoret and imponet honorem are tautological.

Juno travels to Aeolia, the home of the winds. They are ruled by their king, Aeolus, and their potential for mass destruction is the focus of this passage.

50. flammato corde

the fire imagery conveys Juno’s intense anger (like accensa in line 39).

50. volutans

voluto is the frequentative form of volvo (“I turn, roll”), deployed here because Juno is obsessing about the wrongs she thinks the Trojans have done to her, turning them over and over in her mind.

51. feta furentibus austris

the alliteration of f and s sounds gives the impression of the winds confined under pressure. furentibus personifies the winds like a rowdy mob.

53. luctantes … sonoras

a striking chiasmus spans the whole line (which is filled with long syllables for special effect).

54. vinclis et carcere

hendiadys to emphasise the need for Aeolus to restrain the winds. They are like dangerous prisoners.

55. magno cum murmure montis

the alliteration of m sounds and the onomatopoeia of murmure convey the sound of the trapped winds.

56. celsa sedet Aeolus arce

enclosing word order: the sight of Aeolus sitting in his citadel is represented by the very words themselves, creating a regal image.

57. sceptra

the symbol of royal power, conferred by Jupiter himself, emphasised at the start of the line.

57. mollitque animos et temperat iras

tautology to point up the need for Aeolus to restrain the unruly winds.

58. maria ac terras caelumque

the utter destruction that would be caused by the winds if unleashed is pointed up by a tricolon and polysyndeton. The sentence should start quippe ni faciat, but quippe is delayed until the start of the next line for extra emphasis.

61. molemque et montes

a classic hendiadys (rather than “a great mass and mountains” the actual meaning is “a great mass of mountains”) to highlight the extreme measures Jupiter had to take to check the winds. The alliteration with metuens adds further emphasis.

63. iussus

Aeolus is a client king and this word reveals his subservience: he can only exercise his imperium (line 54) over the winds when instructed by Jupiter (or Juno, so it would seem).

Juno gives orders to Aeolus to destroy the Trojan fleet. This scene is a deliberate imitation of a scene in Homer’s Iliad where Hera (Juno) bribes the god Sleep to make Zeus (Jupiter) fall asleep. Intertextuality like this is common in Virgil, who often reimagines and repurposes characters and scenes from other works to excite his educated audience.

64. supplex

Juno is pretending to act humbly to get her way. vocibus usa est confirms that she is putting on an act to manipulate Aeolus.

68. Ilium … victosque Penates

hendiadys (“Troy and her defeated gods” = “the defeated gods of Troy”). Ilium is another name for Troy (hence the Iliad). Ilium and Penates are placed at either end of the line to highlight the historical burden which the Trojans are carrying – the transposition of Troy to a new land. The Penates (household gods) were an important part of Roman religion.

69. incute vim ventis

the direct command of incute starts the line for emphasis. The alliteration of v in vim ventis highlights the violence Juno wishes upon the Trojans.

69. submersasque obrue puppes

“overwhelm the sunken ships.” This reversal of logical order (the ships would be overwhelmed then sunk) is a feature called hysteron proteron (“the later thing earlier”). MacLennan says it puts “the important idea first.”

69–70. incute, obrue, age, disiice

the string of direct commands, all verbs of violent action, makes plain Juno’s brutal intentions.

71. praestanti corpore

“Of outstanding beauty” (ablative of quality). praestanti has the force of a superlative, but pulcherrima is reserved for Deiopea herself. Juno mentions the other nymphs because it adds to the quality of the reward she is offering.

73. propriam dicabo

“I shall pronounce her yours forever.” These words are the formal words used in a Roman marriage ceremony, appropriate since Juno is the goddess of marriage. The idea is a repetition (tautology) of conubio iungam stabili. Juno is anticipating any anxiety Aeolus might have about such a beautiful wife being unfaithful to him.

74. omnes … annos

the separation of noun and adjective (hyperbaton) allows both to be emphasised by position. Juno continues to be persuasive.

Aeolus humbly agrees to Juno’s wishes and unleashes the winds.

76. tuus … labor

the words are separated for emphasis (hyperbaton).

77. mihi

in strong contrast to tuus. Aeolus defines the two roles clearly, as in “your wish is my command.”

78. quodcumque hoc regni

“all this my little kingdom” (Williams). Aeolus plays down his royal power in deference to Juno.

78–79. tu … tu … tu …

the repetition (anaphora) emphasises Aeolus’ gratitude to Juno for the power and privilege he enjoys.

81. cavum conversa cuspide

the alliteration of c sounds mimics the cracking open of the mountain. impulit starts the next line to convey the force of the strike.

82. velut agmine facto

“as if in column formation.” The simile conjures the image of soldiers charging out of a sally port.

83. ruunt et terras turbine perflant

after the perfect tense of impulit, the historic present tense of ruunt and perflant makes the exit of the winds especially dramatic, enhanced by the alliteration of t sounds.

84. a sedibus imis

“from its lowest foundations.” imus is a superlative meaning “innermost.” This is an exaggeration, as storms affect just the surface level of the sea. The hyperbole conveys the experience of the Trojan sailors.

85–86. una Eurusque Notusque … creberque Africus

Virgil now names several different winds (Eurus is the south east; Notus the south; Africus the south west) which act in unison (una). The polysyndeton of -que conveys the mayhem. The tricolon ends emphatically with creberque procellis Africus (“the Southwester, thick with tempests” – Fairclough), which arrives at the start of the next line (enjambment) like an end-of-level boss. MacLennan: “they are now identified as separate winds which, coming from conflicting directions, create even more havoc.”

86. vastos volvunt ad litora fluctus

the alliteration of v sounds and the separation (hyperbaton) of vastos and fluctus highlight the effect the winds are having on the sea, endangering the Trojan ships.

87. insequitur

“there follows” – a historic present tense and an emphatic position to point to the screams of the sailors. The polysyndeton of clamorque … stridorque adds to the terror of the noises.

88. eripiunt

another historic present tense verb in an emphatic position, the drama here enhanced by subito.

88. caelumque diemque

the hendiadys (=“the light of day”) and polysyndeton point up this dreadful moment.

89. Teucrorum ex oculis

the terrifying sight is shown from the Trojans’ viewpoint for extra effect.

89. atra

has two meanings, both of which work here: dark and ominous. Placed at the end of the line for emphasis.

90. intonuere poli

the sudden change to the perfect tense is dramatic, as is the placement of intonuere at the start of the line. The hyperbole of poli (the North and South Poles) shows the storm from the Trojans’ point of view – they feel as though their whole world is being turned over.

90. intonuere … micat … intentant

a tricolon whose parts “grow” in length. The technical term for this is tricolon crescens or “tricolon crescendo.” The effect is either to increase tension each time and/or give extra emphasis to the last part.

91. praesentem … mortem

the separation (hyperbaton) of these words allows mortem to be placed at the end of the line for emphasis. omnia conveys the sense of hopelessness for the sailors caught in the storm.

Aeneas appears. He is distraught and wishes he had died in battle at Troy.

92. extemplo … membra

this is our first view of Aeneas in the poem: solvuntur (historic present) suggests he is collapsing emotionally and physically; frigore is a metaphor for his fear. extemplo (“immediately”) adds to the sense of urgency.

93. ingemit

historic present. Stands alone at the beginning of the line to emphasise Aeneas’ despair.

93. tendens ad sidera palmas

Aeneas lifts his hands to pray. The heavenly reference (sidera) contrasts with the mortal chaos down below.

94. terque quaterque

the same words Odysseus uses (in Greek) when he makes a similar prayer during a storm in the Odyssey (V. 706). The literary reference would delight Virgil’s educated audience.

95. ante ora patrum

“in front of the faces of their fathers.” An emotional reminder of the horrors of the war.

97. Tydide!

the technique of a character addressing someone who is not present is called apostrophe. This patronymic (meaning “son of Tydeus”) refers to the Greek warrior Diomedes, who nearly killed Aeneas when they met in battle (Iliad V. 239 ff.). Aeneas was saved by his mother Aphrodite (Venus) who whisked him away in a cloud of mist.

97. mene

The start of an indignant rhetorical question (like the start of Juno’s speech in line 37).

99. Aeacidae

A patronymic referring to Achilles.

100. Sarpedon

A son of Zeus (Jupiter) who died fighting the Trojans. Aeneas has mentioned A-list heroes from the Trojan War to make his point about a glorious death. Achilles, Hector and Sarpedon all died at Troy, but their names were immortalised.

100. Simois

The main river of Troy.

100–101. tot scuta … galeasque … corpora

A tricolon of battlefield detritus (shields, helmets, bodies). The polysyndeton and accumulation conjure a vivid, pathetic image of the fallen.

102. talia iactanti

“as he uttered such things” – the present participle means Aeneas is still making his lamentations when the next windstorm strikes.

102. stridens

An onomatopoeia.

103. fluctusque ad sidera tollit

stars (sidera) may seem strange – it is still daytime and the sky has been blocked out (line 88) – but this does not diminish the effect of the hyperbole: these waves are huge.

104. franguntur remi

historic present for immediacy, short and abrupt for emphasis.

105. cumulo praeruptus aquae mons

“a sheer mountain of water in a heap.” A hyperbolic, terrifying image of nature’s violence. praeruptus (steep, sheer) is often used of cliffs, not water—adding to the epic scale of the wave. Ending the line with a monosyllabic word is very rare in epic poetry, which makes mons here even more emphatic.

The storm continues to batter the Trojan ships.

106. dehiscens

This graphic, compound adjective is placed at the end of the line for emphasis.

107. terram aperit

“reveals the ground” – a hyperbole (similar to line 84). Windstorms cannot cause such displacement of the sea.

107. furit aestus harenis

The sibilance echoes the sound of the sea dragging over the sand.

108. abreptas … torquet

Verbs which convey the unchecked violence of the south wind.

109. aras

“The Altars” is a grimly ironic name considering the situation. These particular rocks have not been identified for certain, and may be an invention of the poet. They are hidden (latentia) because of the movement of the waves in the storm.

110. dorsum

Usually refers to the back of an animal (hence “dorsal”) – Virgil is implicitly likening them to the spine of a sea monster, such is the danger they present. The alliteration of m sounds in immane mari summo adds to the idea.

111. in brevia et Syrtes

Hendiadys – (= “into the shallows of the Syrtes.” The Syrtes was the name given to an infamous group of sandbanks off the African coast. They are actually situated some way to the east of Carthage and Sicily, but the fudging of geographical locations was generally accepted in ancient poetry.

111. miserabile visu

The sight is so pathetic that it causes the poet to break from the narrative to cry out this exclamation.

112. inliditque

Echoes in … urget from the previous line. Both lines start with “in” to reinforce the driving effect of the winds.

114. ipsius ante oculos

We are urged to watch the fate of Orontes’ vessel from Aeneas’ viewpoint so that we can empathise with his powerlessness to help (ipsius refers to Aeneas).

114. a vertice

Page: “The phrase a vertice ‘from the height’ is a strong one and expresses the fall of something sheer downwards with nothing to check or impede its fall.”

115. in puppim ferit

The critical strike is enjambed for emphasis.

115–116. excutitur … volvitur

A pair of passive verbs to convey the helplessness of the ship’s captain (magister). In Book 6 (line 334) it’s revealed the captain’s name was Leucaspis, and he’s forbidden from crossing the River Styx because he remains unburied.